Abstract:
Being a rich source of cultural heritage, Uttarakhand has a plethora of
folkloric elements rooted in its soil. However, the continuing migration and
globalization have weakened folks’ bond with their culture. “Rajula-Malushahi”,
a Kumaoni folk-ballad, is a case in point. Despite its epic form and the rich
cultural heritage, the oral performance of this
narrative is completely lost. The professional bards have given up their age-old
familial profession of performance and have almost disappeared. The apathetic
response of the audience has aggravated this process. With the shrinking of the
social life of the villages, the enthusiasm of the folks to assemble and listen
to this ballad has also collapsed. Nevertheless, the ballad has generated
interest in different genres. One finds numerous renderings of the ballad in
diverse performance genres such as songs, plays, TV serials (by Doordarshan),
radio plays, and literary adaptations like poems, novels, and short stories.
This paper deals with literary adaptation of the ballad in the novel form. Doing
so, the paper primarily aims at studying the silenced voices in the oral
versions finding their expressions through literary adaptation. This includes
not only a human voice, but all those issues as well which are artistically
excluded from the surface; thus, presenting only a linear and restricted
narrative to the folks. This paper also intends to emphasise the literary
potential in articulating an unobserved and muted narrative suppressed till now.
The novels create counter-narratives, while maintaining the basic storyline of
the ballad intact, making the once prevalent folk-ballad relevant for the
present 21st century readers.
The mentioned objectives of the paper will be achieved through a comparative
analysis of the oral versions of the ballad with its literary adaptation.
Questionnaires obtained from the authors by the researcher will also be referred
to understand the process of negotiation and appropriation authors went through
while dealing with the oral versions.
Keywords:
Counter-narrative, adaptation, hegemony, silenced and marginalised voices.
“Rajula-Malushahi”, a Kumaoni folk-ballad, narrates a love story and the
successive struggles of a girl Rajula who belongs to the
shauk tribe and the Prince of Kumaon,
Malushahi. Though ballad’s presence can be traced in Garhwal region as well, it
is known among Kumaoni folks primarily. Used to be sung in the wintry nights by
the professional bards for hours and days, this ballad can be considered a true
masterpiece that reflects folks’ culture including their belief system. However,
the continuous migration and globalization have weakened folks’ bond with their
culture, and this ballad is a case in point. The bards have given up their
age-old familial profession of performance and have almost disappeared. The
indifferent audience and their passive response have aggravated this process.
The weakening social life in the villages, the fervour of getting together and
listening to this ballad has also collapsed. Nevertheless, the ballad has
generated interest in different genres. One finds numerous renderings of the
ballad in diverse performance genres such as songs, stage drama, TV serials (by
Doordarshan), radio plays, and literary adaptations like poems, novels, and
short stories.
The novels Rajula and the Web of Danger
by Deepa Agarwal and Blood Red
Message: Story of Rajula Malshahi by Girdhar Joshi are the two literary
adaptation of the ballad this paper deals with. Where Deepa writes for children,
Girdhar Joshi caters to the youth of the 21st century. They have
structured and retold the ballad accordingly. Comparing the oral versions
(available in Sangeet Natak Akademi) with the literary adaptation, the paper
primarily aims at studying the silenced voices of the oral versions finding
their expressions through literary adaptation. This silence includes not only a
human voice, but those episodes and issues as well which are artistically
excluded from the surface; thus, presenting only a linear and restricted
narrative to the folks. This paper also intends to emphasise the literary
potential in articulating an unobserved aspect of the narrative suppressed and
muted till now. The novels create counter-narratives, while maintaining the
basic storyline of ballad intact, making the once prevalent folk-ballad relevant
for the present 21st century readers.
The oral versions available in Sangeet Natak Akademi exhibit Malushahi as a
figure of status performing an active role in the love story. In fact, many
other versions are called Malushahi
only. Mohan Upreti’s analysis of the ballad, who recorded three versions for the
Sangeet Natak Akademi, is also called
Malushahi: The ballad of Kumaon.
The female protagonist, Rajula, seems to lose her presence. It should also be
remembered that the ballad would be recited by the male bards only; thus,
minimising presence of a woman in a male-dominated activity. Being a woman, only
her beauty is highlighted that again reflects softness and femininity against
the masculinity and valour of Malushahi. Deepa Agarwal’s adaptation takes Rajula
and Malushahi’s characters into account and gives forth a fresh interpretation
of the ballad.
Being a children’s author, Deepa retold the ballad for young adults
significantly. Deepa’s use of magical tricks and chanting, human transformation,
and fantastical dreams with a prince falling in love with an ordinary girl,
certainly reflect the novel following the structure of a fairy-tale. Apparently,
the adaptation includes all the elements of a fairy-tale. But what sets Deepa’s
novel apart from fairy love-stories is the absence of her heroine as a ‘damsel
in distress’. Unlike the heroines of fairy-tales, Rajula is the one who is not
even frightened by inviting the dangers for herself, and in turn by creating
challenges for her lover. “For me, it came across as the story of a rebel girl,
something rare in folk ballads, which usually celebrate male heroism”, says
Deepa. Rajula is indeed a ‘rebel’ who leaves no stone unturned to marry
Malushahi despite being already betrothed by her father, Sunapati to Bikkhipal,
a King of Huniya tribe who would grant
Sunapati concession for trade in his region in Tibet. On the other hand,
Malushahi stays passive all this while. He does not visit her home in Jalnar
Desh (in the periphery of Kumaon) to talk to her parents only because, according
to him, she leaves ‘mysteriously’. However, her mysterious departure should have
intrigued him to find her when she had clearly informed him about her
whereabouts. As a prince, he has enough strength and capacity to reach Rajula’s
home. Unlike Rajula, he would not have faced any misfortunes. It is only after
reading Rajula’s letter that she writes inside Malushahi’s room when he was in
deep slumber that Malushahi seems to take a stand for his love. Rajula, with her
blood as ink and nose-pin as a pen, writes a letter challenging him saying, “If
you love me sincerely, and are a true son of your mother, you will come to my
father’s house and carry me back with honour as your bride.” (Ch- 12, p. 101).
She also does not forget to mention that “I came here to meet you, braving all
kinds of perils.” When Malushahi reads the letter, he reveals that he has ‘spent
so many sleepless nights’ longing to meet Rajula which is questionable. What
holds him back so long from meeting Rajula is incomprehensible. Even after
receiving the letter, he waits three days for his mother’s permission. It is
only after his mother is grieved by his pain that she permits him to depart to
meet Rajula. Reaching there, he loses to the tricks of Sunapati. Again, Rajula
takes initiative by postponing her marriage for another seven years while
staying with her would-be husband Rikhyepal, thus making the path for Malushahi
clear. Even when Malushahi reaches Tibet to ‘rescue’ Rajula, it is done with the
help of magical tricks and diviners who transform him into a parrot. Thus, it is
not a rescue as such. Malushahi seems to doubt his own potential when he calls
himself an ‘incompetent fool’ and ‘silly’ who has already been ‘outwitted’ by
Sunapati.
Undoubtedly, the bards who would perform the ballad were all male. Their
performances had created a hegemonic and male-oriented narrative underlining the
active role of Malushahi only even though Rajula does everything that is there
in Deepa’s novel in their oral versions as well. But her actions and initiatives
are never praised. The first ever analysis of the ballad
Malushahi: The ballad of Kumaon by Mohan Upreti serves the same
purpose. Absence of a female bard, folklorist, and interpreter led this ballad
to continue among the folks from one perspective only i.e. male perspective.
Deepa’s interpretation brings forth a counter-narrative placing the significant
but marginalised character the due status.
It would not be erroneous to think of Malushahi as a prince dependent on others
for his wishes to be fulfilled. He comes with an army to take Rajula, tricked by
Sunapati almost to death, revived by the magical powers, and visits Tibet with
an army and magicians. Also, his encounter with Rihkyepal’s army cannot be
considered a ‘war’. Malushahi and his army only defend themselves instead of
attacking their enemy. This is also done taking different forms of animals and
birds. At the end, it is with the help of magicians Sidua and Bidua Ramol that
Rikhyepal’s army is dispersed, and Malushahi takes Rajula with him. There is no
moment in the novel which can be absolutely devoted to Malushahi’s chivalry. In
contrast, it is Rajula whose courage has no boundary. From defying her father’s
will and travelling all alone via forest in the night to meet Malushahi, from
using her blood to write a letter and postponing her marriage to wait patiently
as a hostage locked behind seven doors, Rajula comes out not as a distressed
damsel but a hero herself.
Though written for children, Deepa has appropriated the ballad to represent a
new perspective for children who grow up listening to or reading the typical
‘damsel in distress’ tales. She has given a chance to the lady who is as
significant as the hero is. In this regard, the title of the novel
Rajula and the Web of Danger is worth
noting. This foretells that the risks are primarily faced by Rajula only. The
‘danger’ of the title upholds the fact that it is Rajula only who experiences
the ordeals for Malushahi as a common girl without any army or supporters with
her. If, like Malushahi, Rajula has also been inert to the given circumstances,
they would not have been together. The author has completely obliterated
Malushahi’s presence from the title. On being asked about the title, the author
states, “The original ballad is always called Malushahi. I felt there was
something very patriarchal about it, since it is Rajula who takes the initiative
and Malushahi simply responds to her message. For me she’s the real hero of the
story. Thus, I felt she should get her due in the title.”
The oral versions would be commemorated and appreciated as a romance with the
resulting suffering to attain a union at the end. But who suffers to what extent
and whose actions make the union possible would never be talked of despite being
easily observable. Instead of acknowledging Rajula’s brave acts, her feminine
features are discussed. Deepa takes cognizance of the matter and provides a
voice to Rajula’s character making her actions recognised and beauty secondary.
The beauty empathised by bards tempts men towards Rajula putting her in a
compromising situation. The affliction Rajula meets from men is lightened in
Deepa’s fantastical narrative. If one happens to read the oral versions, the
ravishment Rajula goes through at the hands of men is obvious. It is the sexual
afflictions she has to face and escape. But because she is retelling the
narrative to children, Deepa has curtailed unwanted sexual advances causing
misery to Rajula almost invisible. On being asked about the same, Deepa says, “I
tried to combine the three versions I found, keeping the taste of the
contemporary young adult reader in mind. I must also mention that I have toned
down the sexual content, since the book falls in the realm of children's
literature.” It would not be wrong to say that the author has done a great job
in appropriating the sexual content as required.
What Deepa restricts herself to do due to her readership is expanded by Girdhar
Joshi in his novel. Unlike Deepa to utilise magic and dream sequences at length,
he limits magic and dream sequences available in the oral versions in abundance.
What is important for him to deal with that sets it apart from the folk version
is his emphatic episodes on the issues of sex and love. What is covertly dealt
with in oral versions, Joshi’s novel talks about that overtly. In all the three
above-mentioned oral versions (available in Sangeet Natak Akademi), one observes
incidents where Rajula is impeded by many men in her journey to meet Malushahi.
Be it a young, middle aged or a toothless aged-man, all of them almost ravish
and violate Rajula. Their sexual desire for Rajula is, however, covered in the
guise of comic occurrences in the oral versions. However, a reader of the
current century will actively deal with such a burning issue veiled in the garb
of a romantic narrative.
In her journey to meet Malushahi, Rajula first meets the brothers Sidua and
Bidua, the rich farmers of Munsiyari. Both being adamant express their wish to
marry her despite her revelation that she is betrothed. Bidua says, “We have
large lands to cultivate and wealth of cattle. I own twelve cows, one bull, a
pair of oxen, sixty-four goats, and eighty-six sheep.” (Ch-11, p. 74). And Sidua
says, “Not only that, we have amassed tons of gold. We are Exorcists and cure
people in this land who have been possessed by evil spirits and demons. People
pay voluntarily in gold and silver. The day you are my bride, I will load you
with gold ornaments, Rajula.” (Ch-11, p. 75). Instead of a proposal, they
display their wealth and assets for a successful marriage rather than getting a
woman’s consent. The author has openly exposed them as a ‘lusty duo’ of
‘polygamous brothers’ and ‘beastly men’ with their ‘filthy libidos’.
Next, she meets Fatchua Doryav who follows her whistling again and again. The
author calls him a ‘stalker’, ‘leech’, ‘sticky’, and ‘lusty’ who introduces
himself as the biggest shepherd of Dwarahat while he ‘licked his lips’. He does
not even care about being called ‘uncle’ by Rajula. Again, she is offered a
marriage proposal saying, “Listen…baby… I own two dozen buffaloes and lot many
more cattle. Marry me and you will live in abundance. Lot of milk, yoghurt, and
butter.” (Ch-12, p. 81). At this, Rajula thinks to herself, “Do these people
only live to marry women?” (Ch-12, p. 81). This shows her contempt for the men
having only one purpose in their lives finding a woman alone. Further, making it
clear that she already has a husband, he says, ‘“Hey…doesn’t make any
difference. Just desert your husband. Nothing blasphemous and nothing hell of a
job if you desert your present husband, if there is any. You can marry me
without any stigma.’ Shrewd Fatchua was [sic]
even doubted his prey.” (Ch-12, p.82). The word ‘prey’ has been used quite
carefully here by the author to hint at the vulnerability of Rajula in the world
full of men ready to hunt her the moment it is convenient to them.
Lastly comes into picture the Mahara brothers - Lachhi and Bachhi Mahara. The
author calls them ‘goons’, ‘licentious’ and ‘lusty’, and poignantly comments on
them, “Just look at the irony of fate and the absurdity of men’s lust since
centuries. The two men were not even bothered to know if that woman was ready to
marry them or any one of them or was she at least marriageable in the true
context of the word...” (Ch-13, p. 86). Joshi has projected the question of a
woman’s will as a grave matter. In her last interaction with men to meet her
lover, Rajula’s affliction aggravated. Where Rajula manages to escape the hold
of other men, she is strangled by Mahara brothers. Realising the seriousness of
the situation and what it can lead to, she rejects their proposals sincerely.
Lachhi, in reply says, “Hey, there is no question of your will, lady. I know you
are lonely, absconding, and seeking shelter. You took shelter in my watermill.
Didn’t you?” (Ch-13, p. 87). Without waiting for her answer, both started
pulling her in the opposite directions crying ‘she is mine’. This shows not only
their self-assumed right over Rajula, but also a self-asserted statement that
she is absconding and needs their help, and their help should be reciprocated
through accepting their marriage proposal only. Additionally, it is ironic that
they decide on their own that an ‘absconder’ and ‘orphaned’ woman would need a
man for help. They are hiding their own personal interests in the guise of
helping her.
When the “brave and self-righteous woman who did not submit to their whims”,
they dragged her inside the watermill, and kicked and punched. The author gives
a descriptive view of her molestation:
Modesty of a woman was infringed. She
was bruised, pained. Her soul had more bruises than her body. She cried,
shrilled, and sobbed. But the shrieks lost in the grilling volume of the
watermill in that secluded bank of the rivulet down the slopes of the barren
hills. Unable to bear the pain of bruised body and more tormented soul, she fell
unconscious. (Ch-13, p. 91).
Losing of ‘modesty’ and bruises on the ‘soul’ tacitly indicate her ravishment at
their hands. It is further supported by the adjectives like ‘tormented’ and
‘violated’. They are not moved or satiated by this also, and assuming that she
is dead they lock her up in a wooden box and throw her into the Ramganga river
saying, “She invited her own death.” (Ch-13, p. 92). Though all these events are
available in the ballad as well, the tricks Rajula plays at men to escape their
chase make the events humorous making the sexual inflictions invisible. But
Joshi has beautifully and correctly described the actual sexual aspiration of
men Rajula meets. Pointing out the dominance of physical intimacy over emotional
intimacy Joshi comments:
May be sexual solicitation was
presented in a somewhat civilized way by proposing marriage those days and those
places on earth. People always thought of woman as a sex object and bought and
sold her for time immemorial. By marrying a woman, without liabilities, they had
a permanent yet renewable source of sexual gratification. So the polished way of
saying ‘I want sex with you’ was ‘I wish to marry you.’
(Ch- 12, p. 81).
Though Joshi comments with respect to the time ballad is a part of, this above
quotation reflects the aspiration of many men of this century as well. This is
the perspective of many paralysed-minded men also who commit sexual assaults
against women. Likewise, it will not be a difficult task for a reader of the 21st
century to compare Rajula’s situation with all those defenceless women who are
raped and amputated or killed ruthlessly. Thus, Joshi’s literary adaptation
regulates a dynamic reciprocity of a past with the present.
In contrast to these men, Rajula and Malushahi’s relation is examined at another
level. Their love for each other has been described painstakingly by the author
now and then. This completely contrasts with what Rajula went through at the
hands of other men. He describes their first meeting while hinting at the
concept of love:
...two pairs of lovely eyes met, one
pair clandestinely thanking the other; two hearts skipped a beat, ah, two beats
together…Undeciphered and unexplained signals flew. Something inexplicable
happened which only lovers of the world, that and this, knew. Mouths shut, no
verbal communication, but eyes spoke and hearts listened. Many emotions, like
love and hate, don’t need words. Feelings of the heart are translated and
transmitted through non-verbal communication. Silence becomes the language of
love. In fact, love is better communicated through silence.” (Ch-1, p. 15).
Sexual relations are also highlighted openly. On being married to Bikkhipal
(same as Rikhyepal), “Rajula’s mind was in dilemma: whether Malusahi would come,
or he wouldn’t…Or, if Malusahi’s family would accept an impure woman as their
family bride. Or, if their nation would accept a remarried woman as their
queen.” (Ch-23, p. 143). Thus, on Malushahi’s arrival she asks the same question
to which he replies,
And, there is no reason why my people
should not accept you…For me, love, marriage, and sex are three different
things. You have slept with your husband as his socially married wife. You had
to. You didn’t have any choice but to obey. But you love me; you love someone
else from the core of your heart. Don’t you?” (Ch-26, p. 156).
In fact, Malushahi supports Rajula’s decision of revealing her love for him to
Bikkhipal as they will be able to elope now with a ‘clear conscience’. This will
make Bikkhipal understand the result of “marrying a woman against her wishes.”
This recalls the incidents where no man cares for asking Rajula’s consent to
marry them. Further, Joshi makes Malushahi his mouthpiece and conveys ground
breaking statements about sexual relations:
And, sex doesn’t and can’t pollute the
purity of love, purity of a relationship. Sex is like food. You take it when you
need it. This is a biological need. This is something the Almighty has instilled
in us, for his sake, for his selfish motives, so that his creation doesn’t
vanish off the earth, so that the living universe he created doesn’t go for
annihilation in want of living creatures. (Ch-26, p. 157).
He further makes it clear that
And, the present day rules such as
celibacy before marriage, faithfulness in bed with the husband or wife, or sex
only with the chosen partner, were created by the society over a period of time
to save it from anarchy. This was done to instill sense of responsibility among
towards children and sense of belongingness to the partner in the conjugal
relationship in the society…Therefore, sex doesn’t make one impure, unworthy of
love, like food doesn’t pollute you.” (Ch- 26, p. 157).
Malushahi’s comments on the issue of sexual relations are what one should think
of it in present century. With the help of an age-old folklore, the author has
given a new idea. His attempt is more or like to give a definition of love,
lovers and relationships. Indeed, Joshi has a readership he has retold this
ballad for focusing on such a tabooed or not much discussed topic. He does say
in his Preface to the novel, “Well, I wanted to present the story in a form,
which would be appealing to the new generation, confirming to the new ethos, and
believable in the new socio-politico-cultural environment.” (p. 10). Thus, when
a ‘new generation’ reader will observe the silent references of a woman’s
molestation in the oral version, s/he will surely wish this issue to be
vocalised. Likewise, the never mentioned word ‘sex’ in the oral version, though
silently present throughout Rajula’s molesting episode, needs to be discussed.
The significant purpose such an adaptation serves is to make the urban children
mindful of their detached ancestral roots. Deepa states the purpose of her
adaptation, “As a children’s writer, I have always been interested in retelling
traditional narratives so that children remain connected with the wealth of our
heritage. This folk ballad is not too well known outside of Uttarakhand and even
there to the best of my knowledge, it is not commonly performed in contemporary
times.” Certainly, Deepa’s retelling through English language expand the
readership beyond Uttarakhand’s culture. The glossary at the end of the novel
for regional words is helpful not only for the children who culturally belong to
Uttarakhand having no knowledge of the language but also for children from other
cultures.
Joshi is conscious of the rapid changes folks of this century are going through,
and his attempt in retelling a folk-ballad in novel form serves the purpose of
bringing the folks to have a touch with their roots. On being asked the need of
retelling he says,
Folk narratives should live long. As
the social milieu and family structure is changing fast, the new generations
hardly have grannies to tell them the stories. This job has been taken over by
television serials, cartoon serials, and web-series. These mediums are
definitely imaginative but strikingly different. They hardly touch folk-stories.
The stories should be told to the new generation in the form and shape they are
accustomed to…But the new generation of the region has largely migrated to
planes. Their primary and higher education being in English or Hindi languages.
Additionally, the ballad is also a historical narrative for the folks, and
Rajula and Malushahi are not fictional characters for them. The Katyuri dynasty
Malushahi is the prince of ruled Kumaon for centuries. The
shauka and Hun tribes
Rajula and Bikkhipal (or Rikhyepal) belong to are historically recorded and are,
currently, striving for their cultural identities. The trade between these two
tribes is also a part of history. Significantly, where there are no official
records of women’s condition of that period, this ballad insinuates their
marginalised, secondary, and vulnerable condition despite their worthy
contribution. The literary versions of the ballad succeed in recording what
orality fails in surfacing. This proves the effective potential literature
carries in preserving the missing parts of history amidst the challenges of
hegemonic representation. This, in turn, helps in reviving
the ballad and cultural heritage for the present generation while consolidating
ballad’s existence.
1.
Agarwal, Deepa.
Rajula and the Web of Danger.
Hachette, India, 2012.
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Chatak, Dr. Govind.
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Hutcheon, Linda.
A Theory of Adaptation. Routledge, New
York and London. 2006.
4.
Joshi, Girdhar.
Blood Red Message: Story of Rajula
Malushahi. Press, Mumbai. 2016.
5.
Joshi, Girdhar. Personal
Interview. 8, April, 2022.
6.
Pandey, Badridutt.
Kumaon ka Itihas. Shyam Prakasha,
Almora, 1997.
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Upreti, Mohan.
Malushahi – the Ballad of Kumaon.
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